Annex I
The 40 countries plus the European Economic Community listed in Annex I of the UNFCCC that agreed to try to limit their GHG emissions: Australia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, European Economic Community, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Monaco, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United States.
Anthropogenic Emissions
Emissions of greenhouse gases resulting from human activities.
Assigned Amount Unit (AAU)
AAUs are the units used to define emission allowances assigned under the Kyoto Protocol. These allowances are for the man-made emissions of greenhouse gases, which an industrialised country is permitted to emit over a certain commitment period. One Assigned Amount Unit is the equivalent of a metric tonne of Carbon Dioxide. It is calculated using the Quantified Emission Limitation and Reduction Commitment (QELRC), together with rules specifying how and what emissions are to be counted.
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B
Base Year
Targets for reducing GHG emissions are often defined in relation to a base year. In the Kyoto Protocol, 1990 is the base year for most countries for the major GHGs; 1995 can be used as the base year for some of the minor GHGs.
Business-as-usual (BAU)
Refers to a baseline scenario with essentially a continuation of current trends, or including expected developments given the measures already in place.
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C
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
An approach to mitigating climate change by capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from large point sources such as power plants and subsequently storing it away safely instead of releasing it into the atmosphere. Technology for capturing of CO2 is already commercially available for large CO2 emitters, such as power plants.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
CO2 is a colourless, odourless, non-poisonous gas that is a normal part of the ambient air. Of the six greenhouse gases normally targeted, CO2 contributes the most to human-induced global warming. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion and deforestation have increased atmospheric concentrations of CO2 by approximately 30 percent since the industrial revolution. CO2 is the standard used to determine the "global warming potentials" (GWPs) of other gases. CO2 has been assigned a 100-year GWP of 1 (i.e., the warming effects over a 100-year time frame relative to other gases).
Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (CO2e):
Each of the greenhouse gases addressed by the Kyoto Protocol can be identified in terms of its climate change impact relative to that of carbon dioxide. The common unit for emissions reductions is one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent. CO2e is the emissions of a gas, by weight, multiplied by its "global warming potential."
Carbon Sinks
Processes that remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release. Both the terrestrial biosphere and oceans can act as carbon sinks.
Certified Emission Reductions
The carbon credits arising from Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects. One CER is awarded for a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions equivalent in impact to one tonne of carbon dioxide. A CER can be sold or counted toward Annex I countries' emissions commitments. Reductions must be additional to any that would otherwise occur.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
CFCs are synthetic industrial gases composed of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. They have been used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, cleaning solvents and in the manufacture of plastic foam. There are no natural sources of CFCs. CFCs have an atmospheric lifetime of decades to centuries, and they have 100-year "global warming potentials" thousands of times that of CO2, depending on the gas. In addition to being greenhouse gases, CFCs also contribute to ozone depletion in the stratosphere and are controlled under the Montreal Protocol.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
One of the three market mechanisms established by the Kyoto Protocol. The CDM is designed to promote sustainable development in developing countries and assist Annex I Parties in meeting their greenhouse gas emission reduction commitments. It enables industrialized countries to invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries and to receive credits for reductions achieved - Certified Emission Reductions (CERs). Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol defines CDM.
Climate
The long-term average weather of a region including typical weather patterns, the frequency and intensity of storms, cold spells, and heat waves. Climate is not the same as weather.
Climate Change
Refers to changes in long-term trends in the average climate, such as changes in average temperatures. In IPCC usage, climate change refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity. In UNFCCC usage, climate change refers to a change in climate that is attributable directly or indirectly to human activity that alters atmospheric composition.
Climate Sensitivity
The average global air surface temperature change resulting from a doubling of pre-industrial atmospheric CO2 concentrations. The IPCC estimates climate sensitivity at 1.5-4.5oC (2.7-8.1oF).
Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT)
A combined-cycle gas turbine (CCGT) power plant consists of one or more gas turbine generators equipped with heat recovery steam generators to capture heat from the gas turbine exhaust. Steam produced in the heat recovery steam generators powers a steam turbine generator to produce additional electric power. Use of the otherwise wasted heat in the turbine exhaust gas results in high thermal efficiency compared to other combustionbased technologies. Combined-cycle plants currently entering service can convert about
50 per cent of the chemical energy of natural gas into electricity. Additional efficiency can be gained in combined heat and power (CHP) applications (cogeneration), by bleeding steam from the steam generator, steam turbine or turbine exhaust to serve direct thermal loads.
Commitment Period
The period under the Kyoto Protocol during which Annex I Parties' GHG emissions, averaged over the period, must be within their emission targets. The first commitment period runs from January 1, 2008 to December 31, 2012.
Conference of the Parties (COP)
The supreme decision-making body comprised of the parties that have ratified the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. It meets on an annual basis. As of February 2003, it is comprised of 188 countries.
Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (COP/MOP)
This refers to the international conferences held after ratification of the Kyoto Protocol.
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D
Decarbonisation
Decarbonisation refers to a decrease of CO2 emission intensity in a trend.
Deforestation
The conversion of forested areas to non-forest land use such as arable land, urban use, logged area or wasteland.
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E
Emissions Cap
A mandated restraint in a scheduled timeframe that puts a "ceiling" on the total amount of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions that can be released into the atmosphere. This can be measured as gross emissions or as net emissions (emissions minus gases that are sequestered).
Emissions Reductions Unit (ERU)
The carbon credits arising from Joint Implementation projects, i.e., emissions reductions generated by projects in Annex B countries that can be used by another Annex B country to help meet its commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. One ERU is awarded for a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions equivalent in impact to one tonne of carbon dioxide. Reductions must be additional to those that would otherwise occur.
Emissions Trading
A market mechanism that allows emitters (countries, companies or facilities) to buy emissions from or sell emissions to other emitters. Emissions trading is expected to bring down the costs of meeting emission targets by allowing those who can achieve reductions less expensively to sell excess reductions (e.g. reductions in excess of those required under some regulation) to those for whom achieving reductions is more costly.
Entry Into Force
The point at which international climate change agreements become binding. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has entered into force. In order for the Kyoto Protocol to do so as well, 55 Parties to the Convention must ratify (approve, accept, or accede to) the Protocol, including Annex I Parties accounting for 55 percent of that group's carbon dioxide emissions in 1990.
EIT
Economies in transition
EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS)
The EU ETS started in 2005. It has two core elements: carbon dioxide emission limits applied to 5 sectors, and a system of trading allowances to enable compliance at least cost. Credits from CDM projects will be able to be used for compliance purposes from 2005, and those from JI projects from 2008. The EU ETS will operate irrespective of whether the Kyoto Protocol enters into force or not. The first trading period of the EU ETS covers the period 2005-2007 and the second trading period corresponds to the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol 2008-2012.
European Allowance Unit (EAU)
European Allowance Units are issued to installations that have a cap on their emissions under the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS). An installation must hold and surrender EU allowances and/or project based carbon credits equal to its monitored carbon dioxide emissions by the annual EU ETS reconciliation date. EU allowances are also the main unit that will be traded in the EU ETS. One EU allowance = 1 t CO2e.
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G
Gigatonne (Gt)
1 billion (1,000,000,000) metric tonnes
Global Warming
The progressive gradual rise of the Earth's average surface temperature thought to be caused in part by increased concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere.
Global Warming Potential
A system of multipliers devised to enable warming effects of different gases to be compared. The cumulative warming effect, over a specified time period, of an emission of a mass unit of CO2 is assigned the value of 1. Effects of emissions of a mass unit of non-CO2 greenhouse gases are estimated as multiples. For example, over the next 100 years, a gram of methane (CH4) in the atmosphere is currently estimated as having 23 times the warming effect as a gram of carbon dioxide; methane's 100-year GWP is thus 23. Estimates of GWP vary depending on the time-scale considered (e.g., 20-, 50-, or 100-year GWP), because the effects of some GHGs are more persistent than others.
The Kyoto Protocol addresses six greenhouse gases with the respective GWP:
Carbon dioxide (CO2): 1
Methane (CH4): 23
Nitrous oxide (N2O): 296
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): 12 - 12,000
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs): 5,700 – 11,900
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6): 22,200
Data source: Third Assessment IPCC report, 2001
Greenhouse effect
The insulating effect of atmospheric greenhouse gases (e.g., water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) that keeps the Earth's temperature about 60°F warmer than it would be otherwise.
Greenhouse gas (GHG)
Any gas that contributes to the "greenhouse effect." The six greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
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Hot Air
A situation in which emissions (of a country, sector, company or facility) are well below a target due to the target being above emissions that materialized under the normal course of events (i.e., without deliberate emission reduction efforts). Hot air can result from over-optimistic projections of growth. Emissions are often projected to grow roughly in proportion to GDP, and GDP is often projected to grow at historic rates. If a recession occurs and fuel use declines, emissions may be well below targets, since targets are generally set in relation to emission projections. If emission trading is allowed, an emitter could sell the difference between actual emissions and emission targets. Such emissions are considered hot air because they do not represent reductions from what would have occurred in the normal course of events.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
HFCs are synthetic industrial gases, primarily used in refrigeration and semi-conductor manufacturing as commercial substitutes for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). There are no natural sources of HFCs. The atmospheric lifetime of HFCs is decades to centuries, and they have 100-year "global warming potentials" thousands of times that of CO2, depending on the gas. HFCs are among the six greenhouse gases to be curbed under the Kyoto Protocol.
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I
International Energy Agency (IEA)
The International Energy Agency (IEA) acts as energy policy advisor to 26 Member countries in their effort to ensure reliable, affordable and clean energy for their citizens. Founded during the oil crisis of 1973-74, the IEA’s initial role was to co-ordinate measures in times of oil supply emergencies. As energy markets have changed, so has the IEA. Its mandate has broadened to incorporate the “Three E’s” of balanced energy policy making: energy security, economic development and environmental protection. Current work focuses on climate change policies, market reform, energy technology collaboration and outreach to the rest of the world, especially major producers and consumers of energy like China, India, Russia and the OPEC countries.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization and the UN Environment Programme. The IPCC is responsible for providing the scientific and technical foundation for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), primarily through the publication of periodic assessment reports (see "Second Assessment Report" and "Third Assessment Report").
International Emissions Trading (IET)
International Emissions Trading as specified in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol enables Annex-B-countries to trade their Assigned Amount Units (AAUs) between each other.
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Joint Implementation (JI)
One of the three market mechanisms established by the Kyoto Protocol. Joint Implementation occurs when an Annex B country invests in an emissions reduction or sink enhancement project in another Annex B country to earn emission reduction units (ERUs). Joint Implementation (JI) is defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol.
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K
Kyoto Mechanisms
The Kyoto Protocol creates three market-based mechanisms that have the potential to help countries reduce the cost of meeting their emissions reduction targets. These mechanisms are Joint Implementation (Article 6), the Clean Development Mechanisms (Article 12), and Emissions Trading (Article 17).
Kyoto Protocol
An international agreement adopted in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. The Protocol sets binding emission targets for developed countries that would reduce their emissions on average 5.2 percent below 1990 levels.
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L
Land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF)
Land uses and land-use changes can act either as sinks or as emission sources. It is estimated that approximately one-fifth of global emissions result from LULUCF activities. The Kyoto Protocol allows Parties to receive emissions credit for certain LULUCF activities that reduce net emissions.
Linking Directive
The "linking directive" is the name given to the EU directive that permits companies to use CDM and JI carbon credits for compliance with their targets under the EU Emissions Trading Scheme. Formally, the linking directive is not a directive in its own right, but an amendment to the EU ETS directive.
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M
Marginal Abatement Cost (MAC)
Marginal abatement costs are the investment costs required to bring about savings in greenhouse gas emissions. On the whole, the marginal abatement costs will be considerably lower in developing countries than in developed countries, because of their less technologically advanced state.
Methane (CH4)
CH4 is among the six greenhouse gases to be curbed under the Kyoto Protocol. Atmospheric CH4 is produced by natural processes, but there are also substantial emissions from human activities such as landfills, livestock and livestock wastes, natural gas and petroleum systems, coalmines, rice fields, and wastewater treatment. CH4 has a relatively short atmospheric lifetime of approximately 10 years, but its 100-year GWP is currently estimated to be approximately 23 times that of CO2.
Monitoring
Monitoring is the exercise carried out to measure key data and enable the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions to be determined.
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
An international agreement that entered into force in January 1989 to phase out the use of ozone-depleting compounds such as methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and CFCs. CFCs are potent greenhouse gases which are not regulated by the Kyoto Protocol since they are covered by the Montreal Protocol.
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N
National Allocation Plan
In the context of the EU ETS, the NAP defines the Government-determined allowance limit for each installation that has a limit. The limits on emissions will apply from 2005.
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
N2O is among the six greenhouse gases to be curbed under the Kyoto Protocol. N2O is produced by natural processes, but there are also substantial emissions from human activities such as agriculture and fossil fuel combustion. The atmospheric lifetime of N2O is approximately 100 years, and its 100-year GWP is currently estimated to be 296 times that of CO2.
Non-Annex B Parties
Countries that are not listed in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol.
Non-Annex I Parties
Countries that have ratified or acceded to the UNFCCC that are not listed in Annex I of the UNFCCC.
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
These are usually pressure groups organising campaigns to bring about a change in behaviour concerning a particular activity.
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P
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
PFCs are among the six types of greenhouse gases to be curbed under the Kyoto Protocol. PFCs are synthetic industrial gases generated as a by-product of aluminium smelting and uranium enrichment. They also are used as substitutes for CFCs in the manufacture of semiconductors. There are no natural sources of PFCs. PFCs have atmospheric lifetimes of thousands to tens of thousands of years and 100-year GWPs thousands of times that of CO2, depending on the gas.
Photovoltaics (PV)
Photovoltaics (PV) is a solar power technology that uses solar cells or solar photovoltaic arrays to convert energy from the sun into electricity.
Polluter Pays Principle (PPP)
The principle that countries should in some way compensate others for the effects of pollution that they (or their citizens) generate or have generated.
PPM
Abbreviation for "parts per million" - the unit in which concentrations of greenhouse gases are commonly presented. For example, since the pre-industrial era, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have increased from 270 ppm to 370 ppm.
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Q
QELRC (Quantified Emission Limitation and Reduction Commitment)
Also known as QELRO (Quantified Emission Limitation and Reduction Objective): The quantified commitments for GHG emissions listed in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol. QELRCs are specified in percentages relative to 1990 emissions.
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R
Ratification
After signing the UNFCCC or the Kyoto Protocol, a country must ratify it, often with the approval of its parliament or other legislature. In the case of the Kyoto Protocol, a Party must deposit its instrument of ratification with the UN Secretary General in New York.
Reforestation
Replanting of forests on lands that have recently been harvested.
Registry
A registry is essentially an account that holds all permits, allowances and other instruments available for compliance under Kyoto. Registries may be held at a number of levels (national or international), with national Governments holding national registries that will be used to hold the national compliance account instruments.
Removal Units (RMUs)
Removal units is the name given to emission reductions arising from for carbon sink projects.
Renewable Energy (Renewables)
Energy obtained from sources such as geothermal, wind, photovoltaic, solar, and biomass.
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Sequestration
Opportunities to remove atmospheric CO2, either through biological processes (e.g. plants and trees), or geological processes through storage of CO2 in underground reservoirs.
Sinks
Any process, activity or mechanism that results in the net removal of greenhouse gases, aerosols, or precursors of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)
SF6 is among the six types of greenhouse gases to be curbed under the Kyoto Protocol. SF6 is a synthetic industrial gas largely used in heavy industry to insulate high-voltage equipment and to assist in the manufacturing of cable-cooling systems. There are no natural sources of SF6. SF6 has an atmospheric lifetime of 3,200 years. Its 100-year GWP is currently estimated to be 22,200 times that of CO2.
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U
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The international treaty adopted in June 1992 that commits countries to stabilise human-induced greenhouse gas emissions to levels that would prevent our activities leading to dangerous interference with the climate system.
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Validation
Validation of a project is confirmation of the baseline assumptions and calculations, its eligibility and its overall acceptability to stakeholders.
Verification
JI and CDM projects need to be monitored to determine the resulting emissions reductions. In the case of CDM projects, the monitoring reports are verified to confirm the amount of emission reduction credits that should be issued.
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